• Does Playing Violent Video Games Cause Aggressive Behavior?
  
• Evaluating the Research on Violent Video Games
  
• Violent Video Games: Myths, Facts, and Unanswered Questions
  
• Effect that violent video games have on aggression
  
• Violent Video Games and Aggressive Behavior in Young Women
  

Demographics

The November 2005 Nielsen Active Gamer Study, taking a survey of 2,000 regular gamers, found that the U.S. games market is diversifying. The age group among male players has expanded significantly into the 25-40 age group. For casual online puzzle-style and simple mobile cell phone games, the gender divide is more or less equal between males and females. Females have been shown to be significantly attracted to playing certain online multi-user video games that offer a more communal experience, and small amount of young females have been shown to play aggressive games that are sometimes thought of as being "traditionally male" games. According to the ESRB almost 41% of PC gamers are women.^[18] With such video game social networks as Miss Video Game and Guild Cafe having a large percentages of female gamers, the "traditionally male" games are now considered cross-gendered.

Multiplayer

Video gaming has traditionally been a social experience. From its early beginnings, video games have commonly been playable by more than a single player. Multiplayer video games are those that can be played either competitively or cooperatively by using either multiple input devices, or by hotseating. Tennis for Two, arguably the first video game, was a two-player game, as was its successor Pong. The first commercially available game console, the Magnavox Odyssey, had two controller inputs.

Since then, most consoles have been shipped with two or four controller inputs. Some have had the ability to expand to four, eight or as many as twelve inputs with additional adapters, such as the Multitap. Multiplayer arcade games typically feature play for two to four players.

Many early computer games for non-PC descendant based platforms featured multiplayer support. Personal computer systems from Atari and Commodore both regularly featured at least two game ports. Network games for these early personal computers were generally limited to only text based adventures or MUDs that were played remotely on a dedicated server. This was due both to the slow speed of modems (300-1200-bit/s), and the prohibitive cost involved with putting a computer online in such a way where multiple visitors could make use of it.

PC-based computer games started with a lower availability of multiplayer options because of technical limitations. However, with the advent of widespread local area networking technologies and Internet based online capabilities, the number of players in modern games can be 32 or higher, sometimes featuring integrated text and/or voice chat. MMOs can offer extremely high numbers of simultaneous players; EVE Online set a record with just under 36,000 players on a single server in 2006.^[19]

Benefits

C. Shawn Green and Daphne Bavelier have shown that action video game players have better visuomotor skills, such as their resistance to distraction, their sensitivity to information in peripheral vision, and their ability to count briefly presented objects than nonplayers. ^[20] They found that such enhanced abilities could be acquired by training with an action game (Medal of Honor: Allied Assault), involving challenges to switch attention to different locations, but not with a game requiring concentration on single objects (Tetris).

Perhaps the most visible benefits of video gaming are its artistic and entertainment contributions. As a form of multimedia entertainment, modern video games contain a unique synthesis of 3D art, CG effects, architecture, artificial intelligence, sound effects, dramatic performances, music, storytelling, and, most importantly, interactivity. This interactivity enables the player to explore environments that range from simulated reality to stylized, artistic expressions (something no other form of entertainment can allow) where the actions of the player operating as a single, irreducible variable. In this respect, every game scenario will play out a slightly different way every time. Even if the game is highly scripted, this can still feel like a large amount of freedom to the person who is playing the game.

A related property is that of emergent behavior. While many games including card games and sports rely on emergent principles, video games commonly present simulated story worlds where emergent behavior occurs within the context of the game. This is something that some gamers find appealing as it introduces a certain level of randomness to a game. In discussing the issue, game designer Warren Spector has used the term "emergent narrative" to describe how, in a simulated environment, storyline can be created simply by "what happens to the player."^[21] Emergent behavior in video games date back to the earliest games though. Generally any place where event driven instructions occur for AI in a game, emergent behavior will inevitably exist. For instance, take a racing game in which cars are programmed to avoid crashing and they encounter an obstacle in the track, the cars might then maneuver to avoid the obstacle causing the cars behind them to slow and/or maneuver to accommodate the cars in front of them and the obstacle. The programmer never wrote code to specifically create a traffic jam, yet one now exists in the game.

In Steven Johnson's book, Everything Bad Is Good For You, he argues that video games in fact demand far more from a player than traditional games like Monopoly. To experience the game, the player must first determine the objectives, as well as how to complete them. They must then learn the game controls and how the human-machine interface works, including menus and HUDs. Beyond such skills, which after some time become quite fundamental and are taken for granted by many gamers, video games are based upon the player navigating (and eventually mastering) a highly complex system with many variables. This requires a strong analytical ability, as well as flexibility and adaptability. He argues that the process of learning the boundaries, goals, and controls of a given game is often a highly demanding one that calls on many different areas of cognitive function. Indeed, most games require a great deal of patience and focus from the player, and, contrary to the popular perception that games provide instant gratification, games actually delay gratification far longer than other forms of entertainment such as film or even many books. [1] Some research^[22] suggests video games may even increase players' attention capacities.

Also leading the study of video games' positive effects on society is Dr. James Paul Gee, Mary Lou Fulton Presidential Chair in Literacy Studies within Arizona State University's Mary Lou Fulton College of Education.^[23] Formerly of the University of Wisconsin, Gee's book, What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy,^[24] offers 36 learning principles, found in video games, that could be applied to reform America's education system. In a May 2003 column on Wired.com, Gee says, "We don't often think about video games as relevant to education reform, but maybe we should. Game designers don't often think of themselves as learning theorists. Maybe they should. Kids often say it doesn't feel like learning when they're gaming - they're much too focused on playing. If kids were to say that about a science lesson, our country's education problems would be solved.".^[25]

Online multiplayer games, which take advantage of the fact that computer games can use the internet, provide players with the opportunity to compete in real time with other players from across the globe, something that is also unique to electronic gaming. MMORPGs take the concept much further with the establishment of vast, online communities existing in persistent, virtual worlds. Millions of players around the globe are attracted to video gaming simply because it offers such unprecedented ability to interact with large numbers of people engaged simultaneously in a structured environment where they are all involved in the same activity (playing the game).

Even simple games offer potential benefits to the player. Games like Tetris and Pac-man or Galaga are well-designed games that are easy to pick up but difficult to master, much like chess or poker. Despite their simplicity, simple games may also feature online capabilities or powerful AI. Depending on the game, players can develop and test their techniques against an advanced computer player or online against other human players.

The U.S. army has deployed machines such as the PackBot which makes use of a game-style hand controller intended to make it more familiar to use by young people.^[26]

Like related forms of media, computer and video games have been the subject of frequent controversy and censorship, due to the depiction of graphic violence, sexual themes, advergaming (a form of advertising in games), consumption of drugs, consumption of alcohol or tobacco, propaganda, or profanity in some games. Among others, critics of video games sometimes include parents' groups, politicians, organized religion groups, and other special interest groups, even though all of these can be found in all forms of entertainment and media. Various games have been accused of causing addiction and even violent behavior. "Video game censorship" is defined as the use of state or group power to control the playing, distribution, purchase, or sale of video games or computer games. Video game controversy comes in many forms, and censorship is a controversial subject. Proponents and opponents of censorship are often very passionate about their individual views.

Historically, this type of controversy and criticism is not unique to video games. The same situation has been applied to comic books, motion pictures, dancing and to some extent music and books. As long ago as the nineteenth century the same accusations were made about "penny dreadfuls".^{[27][28][29][30]} Moreover, it appears to be a question of age. Since these art forms have been around longer, the backlash against them occurred further in the past, beyond the remembrance of today's youth. In both cases, the attempts at censorship in the United States were struck down as a violation of First Amendment rights, and they have gone on to become fully integrated facets of society.

An organization known as the Entertainment Software Ratings Board or ESRB rates software for certain age groups, however publishers are not required to submit games for ratings, and parents are not always aware of the existence of these ratings. In some cases, children are able to obtain software that is not deemed appropriate by the ESRB for their age. Games that have sparked notable national controversy in the United States include Street Fighter, Mortal Kombat, Night Trap, Doom, the Grand Theft Auto series and, most notably, Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas' infamous Hot Coffee mod fiasco which boosted the game's ESRB rating from M (Mature) to AO (Adults Only).^[31]

Causes of controversy

Criticism of crime and violence in video games

Video and computer games are periodically criticized in the media. Examples include Mortal Kombat, Doom, and Grand Theft Auto. Proponents of video game censorship believe that it is particularly disturbing to some that some video games allow players to act out crimes, and reward them for doing so. A frequently-cited example is the extremely popular Grand Theft Auto III by Rockstar Games, in which a principal game activity is carjacking. It should be noted, however, that any activity of this sort in the game is done completely by choice and players are punished for committing crimes by the police. Considering this game allows one to freely choose, it could also be noted that the game is similar to real life. (A later game in the series, Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas goes a step further, with levels that require the gamer to murder corrupt police characters before the game will advance.)

The game's immediate prequel, Grand Theft Auto: Vice City came under similar criticism, also for implying allegedly racist hate crimes: The game, taking place in "Vice City" (a fictional Miami) in 1986, involves a gang war between Haitians and Cuban refugees, and the player often serves both gangs to plot against one another. Haitian and Cuban anti-defamation groups highly criticized the game for these actions, including using phrases such as "kill the Haitian dickheads" (a phrase used in the game, actually referring to the Haitian gang with which the character is having a shoot-out). After the threat of being sued by the Haitian-American Coalition, Rockstar removed the word "Haitians" from this phrase in the game's subtitles.

These concerns have led to voluntary rating systems adopted by the industry, such as the ESRB rating system in the United States and the PEGI rating system in Europe, that are aimed at informing parents about the types of games their children are playing (or are asking to play). Certain game publishers’ decision to have controversial games rated shows that they are not targeted at young children. They are ESRB rated as "Mature" or "Adults Only" in the US, or given BBFC ratings of 15 or 18 in the UK. The packaging notes that these games should not be sold to children. In the US, ESRB ratings are not legally binding, but many retailers take it upon themselves to refuse the sale of these games to minors. In the UK, the BBFC ratings are backed up by law, so it is actually illegal to sell the game to anyone under the indicated age, and many UK retailers go beyond that and also enforce the PEGI ratings, which are not backed up by law.

Lt. Col. David Grossman, a former West Point psychology professor, has written several books that pertain to the subject of violence in the media, including On Killing and Stop Teaching Our Kids to Kill. During heights of video game controversy he has been interviewed on the content of his books, and has repeatedly used the term "murder simulator" to describe first-person shooter games. He argues that video game publishers unethically train children in the use of weapons and, more importantly, harden them emotionally to the act of murder by simulating the killing of hundreds or thousands of opponents in a single typical video game.

Most studies, however, reach the conclusion that violence in video games is not causally linked with aggressive tendencies. This was the conclusion of a 1999 study by the U.S. government, prompting Surgeon General David Satcher to say, "We clearly associate media violence to aggressive behavior. But the impact was very small compared to other things. Some may not be happy with that, but that’s where the science is."^[2] A meta-analysis by psychologist Jonathan Freedman, who reviewed over 200 published studies and found that the majority did not find a causal link, also reached this conclusion.^[3]

Controversy of speeding and evading the authority in racing games has surfaced when a copy of Need for Speed: Most Wanted found on one of the street racer's car in Toronto in January 19, 2006, when two street racers were involved in an accident resulting a taxi-driver's death. Nevertheless, the police did not find any connection between the game and the incident.^[4]

Criticism related to psychology and children's social development

Over two hundred studies have been published which examine the effects of violence in entertainment media and which at least partially focus on violence in video games in particular. Some psychological studies^[5] have shown a correlation between children playing violent video games and suffering psychological effects, though the vast majority stop short of claiming behavioral causation. Critics to these argue that many of the studies involved fail to use standardized and reliable measures of aggression, and many selectively discuss findings that support their hypothesized link between video games and aggression, and fail to discuss findings that disconfirm this link.

The American Psychological Association summarizes the issue as "Psychological research confirms that violent video games can increase children's aggression, but that parents moderate the negative effects."^[6] Craig A. Anderson has testified before the U.S. Senate on the issue, and his meta-analysis of these studies has shown five consistent effects: "increased aggressive behavior, thoughts, and affect; increased physiological arousal; and decreased prosocial (helping) behavior".^[7] Nevertheless, some studies explicitly deny that such a connection exists, most notably Anderson and Ford (1986), Winkel et al. (1987), Scott (1995), Ballard and Lineberger (1999), and Jonathan Freedman (2002).^[8] More recently, Block and Crain (2007) claim that in a critical paper by Anderson (and his co-author, Bushman), data was improperly calculated and produced fallacious results.^[9]

On March 6, 2005, the American television news program 60 Minutes took on the case of an 18-year old murderer, wherein plaintiffs have argued Grand Theft Auto III and Grand Theft Auto: Vice City inspired him to kill three police officers that came to arrest him for stealing a car. This episode of 60 Minutes has been criticized by the video game community. In October 2005, a judge sentenced the convicted killer to death by lethal injection.

Some psychologists and parents' groups have criticized video games because they believe they cause children to sit alone in the television room for many hours in a row, interacting with a machine (although chatting can be considered a more socially open environment) rather than running and playing outside as they exercise and improve their social skills by playing with other children. They claim that video games can be even more addictive to children than TV, and therefore more likely to isolate them socially in this way. Some studies have purported that there is a correlation between depression and playing computer games.

For more mature gamers, however, such recent games as Bioshock provide "an entirely new tool through which to explore philosophy, psychology, and morality."^[10]

Criticism from religious organizations

Such content found in video games are often criticized by religious groups of specific denominations. Games such as Breath of Fire II, La Pucelle Tactics, Xenogears / Xenosaga, Final Fantasy Tactics, Final Fantasy X, Castlevania,^[11] Tales of Symphonia, and Grandia II contain religious themes that some might find offensive. Often, RPGs in particular make use of a corrupt and powerful church as the game’s antagonist. It should be noted a corrupt and powerful church is a common story element in all entertainment mediums, including literature.

In response to potential criticism, religious content has been censored in some Western releases of Japanese-origin video games. Nintendo in particular censored many of its U.S. releases back in the NES and SNES era. Castlevania, Dragon Quest, Final Fantasy and other games containing such references as crosses, the words "holy," "monk," and names of biblical figures were censored for their U.S. release. One trophy in Super Smash Bros. Melee, Tamagon, was locked out of the U.S. release of the game, possibly due to religious reference and the title of the game in which he originally appeared (Devil World). The trophy can be obtained via hacking, but the name of the game has been changed to "Demon World" in the description.

In 2002, the Xbox fighting game Kakuto Chojin offended many Muslims with the use of religious chanting in background music. The Saudi Arabian government made a formal protest, and Microsoft pulled the game internationally in early 2003.^[12]

Many Muslims were also offended by the Nintendo 64 game The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time. In one of the game's dungeons, Muslim chanting can be heard in the background music. This was changed by Nintendo in later versions of the game, with the older versions being discontinued.^[13] A prominent symbol in the game was the star and crescent, which is usually interpreted as a symbol of Islam.

Criticisms of the game play in and of itself

Some criticisms from both game players and non-game players alike are directed at the game play in and of itself. This primarily is focused toward RPGs, especially MMORPGs, and FPSs, whose gameplay, critics feel, causes obsession or addiction. This is often joked about and admitted in the MMORPG communities. A prominent aspect of RPGs is the immersion factor, or virtual reality, which is seen by critics as escapist. Finally, as most RPG leveling mechanics allow for getting stronger by repetitive fighting of weaker enemies for a long time, this is seen as discouraging risk taking or instilling a fear of losing in the gamer. In fact, most MMORPGs place a level range requirement for getting experience points, in which the lower the enemy's level is relative to the player's, the less experience is gained (until it reaches zero).

The first-person shooter is the other type of video game, with arguably the highest immersion factor, since the player sees through the eyes of the character the player is controlling. The 1993 first-person shooter Doom, a game that Dylan Klebold and Eric Harris played a lot and mentioned in their suicide video, caused some activists and parents' groups to blame it (and other FPS games like it) for the shootings at Columbine High School. Critics of FPS games claim that the immersion factor is too high, and that the US armed forces uses them for training their soldiers.

Uninteresting and uncreative games

Some critics of film and literature look down on video gaming as an inferior form of entertainment.^[14] The majority of criticism of video games from within the video-gaming community also relates to quality. This may stem from early early video games, which tended to have had either simple or entirely linear story structures with little regard to plot development. A frequent counterargument is that this is like complaining that a game of football does not contain much plot or character development, and that although most video games contain a narrative, it serves only to propel the player's actions in and against a virtual world, which is not primarily based upon passively seeing and hearing. Another point of view compares video games to the movies, which during the silent era were also considered mere entertainment.

Other criticisms include unrealistic aspects of graphics or gameplay, games that are simply not fun to play, a perceived lack of games that appeal to women and girls, and a strong and increasing tendency of video game publishers to avoid risks and originality by only funding games which have clear promise to succeed financially. For example, the use of violence in games is seen as a crutch for creativity; it is alleged that if a developer cannot invent an original, fun activity for the player, he will end up giving the player the time-honored task of shooting a monster. In particular, there has been a perceived increase in:

• sequels to, prequels to, and enhanced remakes of previously successful games.
• games which use a licensed intellectual property (in the sense of a copyright and trademark portfolio related to a specific brand) from some other medium, often movies, comic books, television shows, or books;
• games whose game play is more or less copied directly from previously published games that were successful. It is generally agreed that in the early days of video games there seemed to be an explosion of creativity with genuinely new types of game play appearing in some new game every month, and now a new type of game play is seen only a couple of times per year. The Grand Theft Auto series is one of the most notorious for having copy-cat games made (see GTA Clone).

It should be noted that problems with low creativity are also seen in the movie industry; many movies are based on TV shows, novels, or previous entries in series.

Publicized tragedies

Several tragedies speculated to be caused by video games in recent decades have helped fuel controversy.

• On April 20, 1999, American high school students Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold killed 13 people and themselves in the Columbine High School massacre. The pair had been fans of the Doom and Wolfenstein 3D video games, said their mothers.
• In November 2001, 21-year-old American Shawn Woolley committed suicide after what his mother claimed was an addiction to Everquest.^[15]
• On June 7, 2003, 18-year-old American Devin Moore shot and killed three police officers after grabbing one of the officers' weapons following an arrest for the possession of a stolen vehicle. At trial, the defense claimed that Moore had been inspired by the video game Grand Theft Auto III.^[16]
• On June 25, 2003, two American step brothers, Joshua and William Buckner, aged 14 and 16, respectively, used a rifle to fire at vehicles on Interstate 40 in Tennessee, killing a 45-year-old man and a wounding a 19-year-old woman. The two shooters claimed to have been inspired by Grand Theft Auto III.^[17]
• In October 2004, a 41-year-old Chinese man named Qiu Chengwei stabbed 26-year-old Zhu Caoyuan to death over a dispute regarding the sale of a virtual weapon the two had jointly won in the game Legend of Mir 3.^[18]
• In August 2005, the four-month-old daughter of a South Korean couple died after being left unattended for five hours while her parents played World of Warcraft at an Internet cafe.^[19]
• In August 2005, a 28-year-old South Korean man died after playing Starcraft for 50 hours straight.^[20]
• In September 2007, a Chinese man in Guangzhou, China, died after playing Internet video games for three consecutive days in an Internet cafe.^[21][22]
• In December 2007, a Russian man was beaten to death over an argument in the MMORPG Lineage II. The man was killed when his guild and a rival guild challenged each other to a live brawl.^[23]

Counter-criticism by proponents of video games

The most common argument against video games is that they promote violence. A counter-argument commonly expressed in the video game community is that playing these games does not motivate players to actually commit acts of violence in reality; playing a first person shooter does not cause most people to commit murder. A US Secret Service study found that only 12 percent of those involved in school shootings were attracted to violent video games, while 24 percent read violent books and 27 percent were attracted to violent films.^[24] An Australian study found that only children already predisposed to violence were affected by violent games.^[25]

Many gamers accuse critics of overreacting and imagining effects. As with Fredric Wertham's widely publicized crusade against comic books in the 1950s, the association of video gaming with youth crime can be at best seen as a correlation; because a very high percentage of adolescents and young adults play video games (analogous to youth readership of comic books in the 1950s), it would not be surprising that these video games show up in the possession of young violent criminals as well.

Within the video game industry itself, there is not much self-criticism about excessive sexuality or violence, as it is generally agreed that video games are for a wide range of ages, as with films and books, and are not always toys for children. In fact, there is considerable evidence that children actually represent a minority market, and the vast majority of players are adults, whose much greater disposable income represents a vastly more attractive market to game developers. The industry also argues that video game publishers have as much right to explore adult-oriented, mature themes as do movie studios or book publishers. Some developers and publishers find some of this type of content distasteful and do not produce it, but in general there is not much agitation to set limits on adult content for the industry as a whole.

A tongue-in-cheek parody of a GTA clone was featured on a sketch on popular Adult Swim stop-motion sketch show Robot Chicken. The sketch, which is set out in the form of an ad, points out some exaggerated features that are commonly associated with violent video games, such as the ability for the protagonist to shoot his parents, urinate on homeless people, run people over with a school bus, and date-rape an intellectually disabled person. But at the end of the ad, a voice says, "Rated E for Everyone".

A similar parody was in season 8, episode 16 of MADtv, with a "Grand Theft Auto" game show, exaggerating all of the controversial features: Frequent killing (two of the contestants, portrayed by Bobby Lee and Frank Caliendo get "killed"), drugs, and prostitutes (though there was only one on the show), ending with an apology for the excessive violence in the sketch, and a reminder to go buy "Grand Theft Auto: Vice City".

Currently, some educators have begun to address "the controversy over the effects of violent gameplay on gamers" and have also discussed ways in which teachers might incorporate video games into their classrooms, as is the subject of the book Playing to Learn: Video Games in the Classroom written by a Ph.D. at Brock University.^[26]

References

Additional references

• Lieu, Tina (August 1997). Where have all the PC games gone?". Computing Japan.
• Costikyan, Greg (1994). I Have No Words & I Must Design.
• Crawford, Chris (1982). The Art of Computer Game Design.
• Salen, Katie; Eric Zimmerman (2005). The Game Design Reader: A Rules of Play Anthology. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-19536-4. 
• Smuts, Aaron (2005). Are Video Games Art?.
• Blodget, Henry (April 12, 2005). How to Solve China's Piracy Problem. Slate.com. Retrieved on February 12, 2006.
• Winegarner, Beth (January 28, 2005). Game sales hit record highs. Gamespot. Retrieved on February 12, 2006.
• John Wills (2002-10-01). "Digital Dinosaurs and Artificial Life: Exploring the Culture of Nature in Computer and Video Games". Cultural Values (Journal for Cultural Research) 6 (4): 395–417. doi:10.1080/1362517022000047334. 
• Guy, Hannah (2007). Women video gamers: Not just solitaire.

External links

• "The Tenth Art", article about the cultural significance of computer games by Steven Poole
• Chronology of Video Game Systems
• User-consensus video game innovation chronology and dynamic web diagram