Type 212 submarine with fuel cell propulsion of the German Navy in dock

Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, rural locations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact, lightweight and has no major moving parts. Because fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99.9999% reliability.^[16] This equates to around one minute of down time in a two year period.

A new application is micro combined heat and power, which is cogeneration for family homes, office buildings and factories. This type of system generates constant electric power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time produces hot air and water from the waste heat. A lower fuel-to-electricity conversion efficiency is tolerated (typically 15-20%), because most of the energy not converted into electricity is utilized as heat. Some heat is lost with the exhaust gas just as in a normal furnace, so the combined heat and power efficiency is still lower than 100%, typically around 80%. In terms of exergy however, the process is inefficient, and one could do better by maximizing the electricity generated and then using the electricity to drive a heat pump. Phosphoric-acid fuel cells (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 90%^[17] (35-50% electric + remainder as thermal) Molten-carbonate fuel cells have also been installed in these applications, and solid-oxide fuel cell prototypes exist.

The world's first certified Fuel Cell Boat (HYDRA), in Leipzig/Germany

Since electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on external storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one example. In this application, batteries would have to be largely oversized to meet the storage demand, but fuel cells only need a larger storage unit (typically cheaper than an electrochemical device).

One such pilot program is operating on Stuart Island in Washington State. There the Stuart Island Energy Initiative ^[18]has built a complete, closed-loop system: Solar panels power an electrolyzer which makes hydrogen. The hydrogen is stored in a 500 gallon tank at 200 PSI, and runs a ReliOn fuel cell to provide full electric back-up to the off-the-grid residence. The SIEI website gives extensive technical details.

The world's first Fuel Cell operated and certified passenger ship was the "HYDRA" (see picture). Mr. Christian Machens was the founder of the company "etaing GmbH" and realised this project with a small team of young engineers in Leipzig. It was christened in June 2000 in Bonn. The Fuel Cell System (AFC type, 6,5 kWel net output) was built in Wurzen near Leipzig, the hull was built in Hamburg and it was certified by the Germanischer Lloyd (Hamburg). The boat has transported around 2.000 persons without any major technical problems. The main advantages of the AFC technology are that the system can start at freezing temperatures (-10°C) and is not sensitive to a salty environment.

Suggested applications

• Base load power plants
• Electric and hybrid vehicles.
• Auxiliary power
• Off-grid power supply
• Notebook computers for applications where AC charging may not be available for weeks at a time.
• Portable charging docks for small electronics (e.g. a belt clip that charges your cell phone or PDA).
• Smartphones with high power consumption due to large displays and additional features like GPS might be equipped with micro fuel cells.

Hydrogen transportation and refueling

Toyota FCHV PEM FC fuel cell vehicle

For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen vehicle.

For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen station.

For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen highway.

The first public hydrogen refueling station was opened in Reykjavík, Iceland in April 2003. This station serves three buses built by DaimlerChrysler that are in service in the public transport net of Reykjavík. The station produces the hydrogen it needs by itself, with an electrolyzing unit (produced by Norsk Hydro), and does not need refilling: all that enters is electricity and water. Royal Dutch Shell is also a partner in the project. The station has no roof, in order to allow any leaked hydrogen to escape to the atmosphere.

The GM 1966 Electrovan was the automotive industry's first attempt at an automobile powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. The Electrovan, which weighed more than twice as much as a normal van, could travel up to 70mph for 30 seconds.^[19][20]

The 2001 Chrysler Natrium used its own on-board hydrogen processor. It produces hydrogen for the fuel cell by reacting sodium borohydride fuel with Borax, both of which Chrysler claimed was naturally occurring in great quantity in the United States.^[21] The hydrogen produces electric power in the fuel cell for near-silent operation and a range of 300 miles without impinging on passenger space. Chrysler also developed vehicles which separated hydrogen from gasoline in the vehicle, the purpose being to reduce emissions without relying on a nonexistent hydrogen infrastructure and to avoid large storage tanks.^[22]

In 2005 the British firm Intelligent Energy produced the first ever working hydrogen run motorcycle called the ENV (Emission Neutral Vehicle). The motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for four hours, and to travel 100 miles in an urban area, at a top speed of 50 miles per hour.^[23] Honda is also going to offer fuel-cell motorcycles.^[24][25]

A hydrogen fuel cell public bus accelerating at traffic lights in Perth, Western Australia

There are numerous prototype or production cars and buses based on fuel cell technology being researched or manufactured. Research is ongoing at a variety of motor car manufacturers. Honda has announced the release of a hydrogen vehicle in 2008.^[26]

Type 212 submarines use fuel cells to remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface.

Boeing researchers and industry partners throughout Europe are planning to conduct experimental flight tests in 2007 of a manned airplane powered only by a fuel cell and lightweight batteries. The Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane research project was completed recently and thorough systems integration testing is now under way in preparation for upcoming ground and flight testing. The Boeing demonstrator uses a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which is coupled to a conventional propeller.

Market structure

Not all geographic markets are ready for SOFC powered m-CHP appliances. Currently, the regions that lead the race in Distributed Generation and deployment of fuel cell m-CHP units are the EU and Japan.^[27]

References