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 The Solar Car Book A complete kit for making a cool solar racecar. Everything is included: wheels, axles, motors, wires and a genuine one-volt solar cell. |
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Renewable Energy Commercialization Renewable energy commercialization involves the diffusion of three generations of technologies dating back more than 100 years. First-generation technologies, which are already mature and economically competitive, include biomass, hydroelectricity, and geothermal power and heat. Second-generation technologies are market-ready and are being deployed at the present time; they include solar heating, photovoltaics and modern forms of bioenergy. Third-generation technologies require continued R&D efforts in order to make large contributions on a global scale and include advanced biomass gasification, biorefinery technologies, solar thermal power stations, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy.[1][2] While there are many non-technical barriers to the widespread use of renewables,[3] some 65 countries now have targets for their own renewable energy futures, and have enacted wide-ranging public policies to promote renewables.[4] Climate change concerns[5][6] coupled with high oil prices[7] are driving increasing growth in the renewable energy industries.[8] Investment capital flowing into renewable energy climbed from $80 billion in 2005 to a record $100 billion in 2006.[9] Leading renewable energy companies include: Enercon, Gamesa, GE Energy, Q-Cells, Sharp Solar, SunOpta, and Vestas.[10] CostsRenewable energy systems encompass a broad, diverse array of technologies, and the current status of these can vary considerably. Some technologies are already mature and economically competitive (e.g. geothermal and hydropower), others need additional development to become competitive without subsidies. This can be helped by improvements to sub-components, such as electric generators. The table shows an overview of costs of various renewable energy technologies. For comparison with the prices in the table, electricity production from a conventional coal-fired plant costs about 4¢/kWh.[33] Though in some G8 nations the cost can be significantly higher at 7.88p (~15¢/kWh).[34] Achieving further cost reductions as indicated in the table below requires further technology development, market deployment, an increase in production capacities to mass production levels[35], and of the establishment of an emissions trading scheme and/or carbon tax which would attribute a cost to each unit of carbon emitted; thus reflecting the true cost of energy production by fossil fuels which then could be used to lower the cost/kWh of these renewable energies.
Future potentialPresent renewable energy sources supply about 18% of current energy use and there is much potential that could be exploited in the future. As the table below illustrates, the technical potential of renewable energy sources is more than 18 times current global primary energy use and furthermore several times higher than projected energy use in 2100.
OverviewRenewable energy technologies are essential contributors to the energy supply portfolio, as they contribute to world energy security, reduce dependency on fossil fuels, and provide opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases.[1] The International Energy Agency has defined three generations of renewable energy technologies, reaching back over 100 years:
First-generation technologies are well established, second-generation technologies are entering markets, and third-generation technologies heavily depend on long-term RD&D commitments, where the public sector has a role to play.[1] First-generation technologiesFirst-generation technologies are widely used in locations with abundant resources. Their future use depends on the exploration of the remaining resource potential, particularly in developing countries, and on overcoming challenges related to the environment and social acceptance. BiomassBiomass for heat and power is a fully mature technology which offers a ready disposal mechanism for municipal, agricultural, and industrial organic wastes. However, the industry has remained relatively stagnant over the decade to 2007, even though demand for biomass (mostly wood) continues to grow in many developing countries. One of the problems of biomass is that material directly combusted in cook stoves produces pollutants, leading to severe health and environmental consequences, although improved cook stove programmes are alleviating some of these effects. First-generation biomass technologies can be economically competitive, but may still require deployment support to overcome public acceptance and small-scale issues.[1] Hydroelectricity
Hydroelectric plants have the advantage of being long-lived and many existing plants have operated for more than 100 years. Hydropower is also an extremely flexible technology from the perspective of power grid operation. Large hydropower provides one of the lowest cost options in today’s energy market and there are no harmful emissions associated with plant operation.[1] However, there are several significant environmental disadvantages of large-scale hydroelectric power systems: dislocation of people living where the reservoirs are planned, release of significant amounts of carbon dioxide during construction and flooding of the reservoir, and disruption of aquatic ecosystems and birdlife.[11] Hydroelectric power is now more difficult to site in developed nations because most major sites within these nations are either already being exploited or may be unavailable for these environmental reasons. The areas of greatest hydroelectric growth are the growing economies of Asia. China is the development leader; however, other Asian nations are also expanding hydropower. There is a strong consensus now that countries should adopt an integrated approach towards managing water resources, which would involve planning hydropower development in co-operation with other water-using sectors.[1] Geothermal power and heat
Geothermal power plants can operate 24 hours per day, providing baseload capacity, and the world potential capacity for geothermal power generation is estimated at 85 GW over the next 30 years. However, geothermal power is accessible only in limited areas of the world, including the United States, Central America, Indonesia, East Africa and the Philippines. The costs of geothermal energy have dropped substantially from the systems built in the 1970s.[1] Geothermal heat generation can be competitive in many countries producing geothermal power, or in other regions where the resource is of a lower temperature. Second-generation technologiesMarkets for second-generation technologies have been strong and growing over the past decade, and these technologies have gone from being a passion for the dedicated few to a major economic sector in countries such as Germany, Spain, the United States, and Japan. Many large industrial companies and financial institutions are involved and the challenge is to broaden the market base for continued growth worldwide.[1][5] Solar Heating
Solar heating systems are a well known second-generation technology and generally consist of solar thermal collectors, a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to its point of usage, and a reservoir or tank for heat storage. The systems may be used to heat domestic hot water, swimming pools, or homes and businesses. The heat can also be used for industrial process applications or as an energy input for other uses such as cooling equipment.[12] In many warmer climates, a solar heating system can provide a very high percentage (50 to 75%) of domestic hot water energy. An early solar heating boom took place during the 1940s in the United States, during which period institutional support for solar research and energy conservation measures imposed during World War II fueled significant advances in solar technology, which went as far as the development of a prototype prefabricated solar-heated home. A few proponents of this technology saw it as a clean alternative to polluting fuels, but the great majority of advocates, researchers, and investors saw it as a solution to high energy costs during the war; when those conditions changed and the 1950s ushered in a period of record low energy prices, interest rapidly waned, and the commercial development of solar heating systems was postponed to a later decade.[13] Photovoltaics
 38°1′51″N, 7°37′22″WPhotovoltaic (PV) cells, also called solar cells, convert light into electricity. In the 1980s and early 1990s, most photovoltaic modules were used to provide Remote Area Power Supply, but from around 1995, industry efforts have focused increasingly on developing building integrated photovoltaics and photovoltaic power stations for grid connected applications. Currently the largest photovoltaic power plant in North America is the Nellis Solar Power Plant (15 MW).[14][15] There is a proposal to build a Solar power station in Victoria, Australia, which would be the world's largest PV power station, at 154 MW.[16][17] Other large photovoltaic power stations, which are under construction, include the Girassol solar power plant (62 MW),[18] and the Waldpolenz Solar Park (40 MW).[19] Annual production of photovoltaics reached 3,800 megawatts worldwide in 2007, an increase of 50 percent over 2006. At the end of 2007, according to preliminary data, cumulative global production was 12,400 megawatts. Photovoltaic production has been doubling every two years, increasing by an average of 48 percent each year since 2002, making it the world’s fastest-growing energy technology. The top five photovoltaic producing countries are Japan, China, Germany, Taiwan, and the USA.[20] Wind power
Some of the second-generation renewables, such as wind power, have high potential and have already realised relatively low production costs.[21][22] As of April 2008, worldwide wind farm capacity was 100,000 megawatts (MW),[23] and wind power produced some 1.3% of global electricity consumption,[24] accounting for approximately 18% of electricity use in Denmark, 9% in Spain, and 7% in Germany.[25] However, it may be difficult to site wind turbines in some areas for aesthetic or environmental reasons, and it may be difficult to integrate wind power into electricity grids in some cases.[1] The United States is an important growth area for wind power. The latest American Wind Energy Association figures show that installed U.S. wind power capacity has reached 11,600 MW which is enough to serve three million average households.[26] Some of the largest wind farms operating in the U.S. are: Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center, TX (736 MW); Maple Ridge Wind Farm, NY (322 MW); Stateline Wind Project, OR & WA (300 MW); King Mountain Wind Farm, TX (281 MW); and Sweetwater Wind Farm, TX (264 MW).[26] Modern forms of Bioenergy
Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18 percent of the country's automotive fuel. As a result of this and the exploitation of domestic deep water oil sources, Brazil, which for years had to import a large share of the petroleum needed for domestic consumption, recently reached complete self-sufficiency in liquid fuels.[27][28][29] Production and use of ethanol has been stimulated through: (1) low-interest loans for the construction of ethanol distilleries; (2) guaranteed purchase of ethanol by the state-owned oil company at a reasonable price; (3) retail pricing of neat ethanol so it is competitive if not slightly favorable to the gasoline-ethanol blend; and (4) tax incentives provided during the 1980s to stimulate the purchase of neat ethanol vehicles. Guaranteed purchase and price regulation were ended some years ago, with relatively positive results. In addition to these other policies, ethanol producers in the state of São Paulo established a research and technology transfer center that has been effective in improving sugar cane and ethanol yields.[30] 
Most cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. Ford, DaimlerChrysler, and GM are among the automobile companies that sell “flexible-fuel” cars, trucks, and minivans that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85% ethanol (E85). By mid-2006, there were approximately six million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.[31] The challenge is to expand the market for biofuels beyond the farm states where they have been most popular to date. Flex-fuel vehicles are assisting in this transition because they allow drivers to choose different fuels based on price and availability. The Energy Policy Act of 2005, which calls for 7.5 billion gallons of biofuels to be used annually by 2012, will also help to expand the market.[31] It should also be noted that the growing ethanol and biodiesel industries are providing jobs in plant construction, operations, and maintenance, mostly in rural communities. According to the Renewable Fuels Association, the ethanol industry created almost 154,000 U.S. jobs in 2005 alone, boosting household income by $5.7 billion. It also contributed about $3.5 billion in tax revenues at the local, state, and federal levels.[31] Third-generation technologiesThird-generation technologies are still under development and include advanced biomass gasification, biorefinery technologies, solar thermal power stations, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy.[1] Third-generation technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or have limited commercialization. Many are on the horizon and may have potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies, but still depend on attracting sufficient attention and RD&D funding.[1] New bioenergy technologies
According to the International Energy Agency, new bioenergy (biofuel) technologies being developed today, notably cellulosic ethanol biorefineries, could allow biofuels to play a much bigger role in the future than previously thought.[32] Cellulosic ethanol can be made from plant matter composed primarily of inedible cellulose fibers that form the stems and branches of most plants. Crop residues (such as corn stalks, wheat straw and rice straw), wood waste, and municipal solid waste are potential sources of cellulosic biomass. Dedicated energy crops, such as switchgrass, are also promising cellulose sources that can be sustainably produced in many regions of the United States.[33] Solar thermal power stations
Solar thermal power stations have been successfully operating in California commercially since the late 1980s, including the largest solar power plant of any kind, the 350 MW Solar Energy Generating Systems. Nevada Solar One is another 64 MW plant which has recently opened.[34] Other parabolic trough power plants being proposed are two 50 MW plants in Spain, and a 100 MW plant in Israel.[35] Ocean energyIn terms of ocean energy, another third-generation technology, Portugal has the world's first commercial wave farm, the Aguçadora Wave Park, under construction in 2007. The farm will initially use three Pelamis P-750 machines generating 2.25 MW[36][37] and costs are put at 8.5 million euro. Subject to successful operation, a further 70 million euro is likely to be invested before 2009 on a further 28 machines to generate 525 MW. Funding for a wave farm in Scotland was announced in February 2007 by the Scottish Executive, at a cost of over 4 million pounds, as part of a £13 million funding packages for ocean power in Scotland. The farm will be the world's largest with a capacity of 3 MW generated by four Pelamis machines.[38] In 2007, the world's first commercial tidal power station is to be installed in the narrows of Strangford Lough in Ireland. The 1.2 megawatt underwater tidal electricity generator, part of Northern Ireland's Environment & Renewable Energy Fund scheme, will take advantage of the fast tidal flow (up to 4 metres per second) in the lough. Although the generator is expected to be powerful enough to power a thousand homes, the turbine will have minimal environmental impact, as it will be almost entirely submerged, and the rotors pose no danger to wildlife as they turn quite slowly.[39] Enhanced geothermal systemsEnhanced geothermal systems, also known as hot dry rock geothermal, utilise new techniques to exploit resources that would have been uneconomical in the past. These systems are still in the research phase, and require additional RD&D for new and improved approaches, as well as to develop smaller modular units that will allow economies of scale at the manufacturing level. Further government-funded research and close collaboration with industry will help to make exploitation of geothermal resources more economically attractive for investors.[1] Nanotechnology thin-film solar panelsSolar power panels that use nanotechnology, which can create circuits out of individual silicon molecules, may cost half as much as traditional photovoltaic cells, according to executives and investors involved in developing the products. Nanosolar has secured more than $100 million from investors to build a factory for nanotechnology thin-film solar panels. The company expects the factory to open in 2010 and produce enough solar cells each year to generate 430 megawatts of power. Renewable energy industryBy mid-2007, some 140 publicly-traded renewable energy companies worldwide (or renewable energy divisions of major companies) each had a market capitalization greater than $40 million. The estimated total market capitalization of these companies and divisions was more than $100 billion in mid-2007.[40] Wind power companies
Currently three quarters of global wind turbine sales come from only four turbine manufacturing companies: Vestas, Gamesa, Enercon, and GE Energy.[41] Vestas, the market leader,[10] has installed turbines in 60 countries. It is a Danish company which employs 14,000 people globally and, in 2003, merged with the Danish wind turbine manufacturer NEG Micon. Gamesa, founded in 1976 with headquarters in Bilbao, Spain, is currently the world's second largest wind turbine manufacturer,[10][42] after Vestas, and it is also a major builder of wind farms. Gamesa’s main markets are within Europe, the US and China. In 2006, Europe accounted for 65 percent of Gamesa’s sales, of which 40 percent were within Spain.[41] In 2004, German company Enercon installed a total of 1288 MW of wind power and had around 16% of the global market share. Enercon constructed production facilities in Brazil in 2006, and has extended its presence there, as well as in the more traditional markets of Germany, India, Austria, UK, Canada and the Netherlands.[10] GE Energy has installed over 5,500 wind turbines and 3,600 hydro turbines, and its installed capacity of renewable energy worldwide exceeds 160,000 MW.[43] GE Energy bought out Enron Wind in 2002 and also has nuclear energy operations in its portfolio.[44] Photovoltaic companiesSharp Solar produces both single and multi-crystalline solar cells and for some years has been the world's leading manufacturer of photovoltaic modules. Sharp's solar modules are used for many applications, from satellites to lighthouses, and from industrial applications to residential use. Sharp manufactures PV modules near Wrexham and production capacity amounted to 324 MW in 2004.[45][46] Today, Sharp manufactures more than a quarter of global solar PV output, with annual revenues of more than $1 billion from that business. The company’s president, Katsuhiko Machida, predicts that the cost of generating power from photovoltaics could fall by half between 2006 and 2010.[22] Q-Cells, the German solar cell manufacturer, went from zero manufacturing output in 2000 to being the world’s second largest manufacturer of solar cells in 2006. Q-Cells planned to manufacture about 250 MW of solar cells in 2007.[22] Q-cells is based in Thalheim, Germany, and employs more than 1,000 people.[47][48] Kyocera has announced a plan to increase its solar cell production to 500 MW per year in 2010. 500 MW is about three times the 2007 production output, and the company will strengthen production bases in Japan, the US, Europe and China, investing a total of about ¥30 billion through to 2010.[49][50] Other companiesSunOpta is located in Canada and was founded in 1973. Its operations are divided between SunOpta Food (organics), Opta Minerals, and SunOpta BioProcess (bioethanol). SunOpta's fastest growing business segment is the BioProcess Group, which is a leading developer of technology in the cellulosic ethanol market. SunOpta's BioProcess Group specializes in the design, construction and optimization of biomass conversion equipment and facilities. They have over 30 years experience delivering biomass solutions worldwide and use innovative technologies to produce cellulosic ethanol and cellulosic butanol. Raw materials include wheat straw, corn stover, grasses, oat hulls and wood chips.[51] Non-technical barriers to acceptanceThere have been several recent reports which have identified a range of "non-technical barriers" to renewable energy use.[3][52] These barriers are impediments which put renewable energy at a marketing, institutional, or policy disadvantage relative to other forms of energy. Key barriers include:[3][52]
With such a wide range of non-technical barriers, there is no "silver bullet" solution to drive the transition to renewable energy. So ideally there is a need for several different types of policy instruments to complement each other and overcome different types of barriers.[52][54] A policy framework must be created that will level the playing field and redress the imbalance of traditional approaches associated with fossil fuels. The policy landscape must keep pace with broad trends within the energy sector, as well as reflecting specific social, economic and environmental priorities.[55] Public policy landscape
Public policy has a role to play in renewable energy commercialization because the free market system has some fundamental limitations. As the Stern Review points out:
Lester Brown goes further and suggests that the market "does not incorporate the indirect costs of providing goods or services into prices, it does not value nature’s services adequately, and it does not respect the sustainable-yield thresholds of natural systems".[56] It also favors the near term over the long term, thereby showing limited concern for future generations.[56] Tax and subsidy shifting can help overcome these problems.[57] Shifting taxesTax shifting involves lowering income taxes while raising levies on environmentally destructive activities, in order to create a more responsive market. It has been widely discussed and endorsed by economists. For example, a tax on coal that included the increased health care costs associated with breathing polluted air, the costs of acid rain damage, and the costs of climate disruption would encourage investment in renewable technologies. Several Western European countries are already shifting taxes in a process known there as environmental tax reform, to achieve environmental goals.[56] A four-year plan adopted in Germany in 1999 gradually shifted taxes from labor to energy and, by 2001, this plan had lowered fuel use by 5 percent. It had also increased growth in the renewable energy sector, creating some 45,400 jobs by 2003 in the wind industry alone, a number that is projected to rise to 103,000 by 2010. In 2001, Sweden launched a new 10-year environmental tax shift designed to convert 30 billion kroner ($3.9 billion) of taxes on income to taxes on environmentally destructive activities. Other European countries with significant tax reform efforts are France, Italy, Norway, Spain, and the United Kingdom. Asia’s two leading economies, Japan and China, are considering the adoption of carbon taxes.[56] Shifting subsidies
Subsidies are not inherently bad as many technologies and industries emerged through government subsidy schemes. The Stern Review explains that of 20 key innovations from the past 30 years, only one of the 14 they could source was funded entirely by the private sector and nine were totally funded by the public sector.[58] In terms of specific examples, the Internet was the result of publicly funded links among computers in government laboratories and research institutes. And the combination of the federal tax deduction and a robust state tax deduction in California helped to create the modern wind power industry.[57] But just as there is a need for tax shifting, there is also a need for subsidy shifting. Lester Brown has argued that "a world facing the prospect of economically disruptive climate change can no longer justify subsidies to expand the burning of coal and oil. Shifting these subsidies to the development of climate-benign energy sources such as wind, solar, biomass, and geothermal power is the key to stabilizing the earth’s climate."[57] Some countries are eliminating or reducing climate disrupting subsidies and Belgium, France, and Japan have phased out all subsidies for coal. Germany reduced its coal subsidy from $5.4 billion in 1989 to $2.8 billion in 2002, and in the process lowered its coal use by 46 percent. Germany plans to phase out this support entirely by 2010. China cut its coal subsidy from $750 million in 1993 to $240 million in 1995 and more recently has imposed a tax on high-sulfur coals.[57] While some leading industrial countries have been reducing subsidies to fossil fuels, most notably coal, the United States has been increasing its support for the fossil fuel and nuclear industries.[57] Renewable energy targetsSetting national renewable energy targets can be an important part of a renewable energy policy and these targets are usually defined as a percentage of the primary energy and/or electricity generation mix. For example, the European Union has prescribed an indicative renewable energy target of 12 per cent of the total EU energy mix and 22 per cent of electricity consumption by 2010. National targets for individual EU Member States have also been set to meet the overall target. Other developed countries with defined national or regional targets include Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Switzerland, and some US States.[59] National targets are also an important component of renewable energy strategies in some developing countries. Developing countries with renewable energy targets include China, India, Korea, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Brazil, Israel, Egypt, Mali, and South Africa. The targets set by many developing countries are quite modest when compared with those in some industrialized countries.[59] Renewable energy targets in most countries are indicative and nonbinding but they have assisted government actions and regulatory frameworks. The United Nations Environment Program has suggested that making renewable energy targets legally binding could be an important policy tool to achieve higher renewable energy market penetration.[59] Recent developmentsA number of events in 2006 pushed renewable energy up the political agenda, including the US mid-term elections in November, which confirmed clean energy as a mainstream issue. Also in 2006, the Stern Review[6] made a strong economic case for investing in low carbon technologies now, and argued that economic growth need not be incompatible with cutting energy consumption.[60] According to a trend analysis from the United Nations Environment Programme, climate change concerns[5] coupled with recent high oil prices[7] and increasing government support are driving increasing rates of investment in the renewable energy and energy efficiency industries.[8][9] The UNEP report says investment capital flowing into renewable energy climbed from $80 billion in 2005 to a record $100 billion in 2006. In 2007, the upward trend is continuing, with capital investments occurring in sectors and regions previously considered too risky and too illiquid to merit the attention of the institutional investment community. The OECD still dominates, but there is now increasing activity from companies in China, India and Brazil. Chinese companies were the second largest recipient of venture capital in 2006 after the United States. In the same year, India was the largest net buyer of companies abroad, mainly in the more established European markets.[9] Renewable energy (and energy efficiency) are no longer niche sectors that are promoted only by governments and environmentalists. The increased levels of private investment and the fact that much of the capital is coming from more conventional financial actors suggest that sustainable energy options are now becoming mainstream.[61] A recent report from Helmut Kaiser Consultancy of Zurich states that the generation and storage of renewable energy will be the fastest growing sector in energy market over the next 20 years.[62] The international law firm of Thompson & Knight LLP has launched a Climate Change and Renewable Energy Practice Group, consisting of 26 attorneys.[63] The Ernst & Young "Country Attractiveness Indices" provide scores (out of 100) for national renewable energy markets, renewable energy infrastructures and their suitability for individual technologies.[64] Sustainable energyMoving towards energy sustainability will require changes not only in the way energy is supplied, but in the way it is used, and reducing the amount of energy required to deliver various goods or services is essential. Opportunities for improvement on the demand side of the energy equation are as rich and diverse as those on the supply side, and often offer significant economic benefits.[65] Renewable energy and energy efficiency are said to be the “twin pillars” of sustainable energy policy. Any serious vision of a sustainable energy economy requires commitments to both renewables and efficiency. The American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy has explained that both resources must be developed in order to stabilize and reduce carbon dioxide emissions:[66]
The IEA has stated that renewable energy and energy efficiency policies should be viewed as complementary tools for the development of a sustainable energy future, instead of being developed in isolation.[67] See also
References
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